간음姦淫adulterycommitadulterywithfornicationthehotbedofconjugalinfidelity 나의 고난과 시련의 시기에 나의 원수(이건희,이재용 및 나에게 원수가 된 자들) 들과 동침한 여자,여성,아내들에 대하여 무조건 파문토록 지시명령처리기록되다 나의 원수의 원본래적자기자신적원본원적본원적 원본인적본인적을 비롯하여 위위형,위변형,위위조 위모조, 위변조하거나 아바타등을 이용하여 타인으로 보여지도록 위장한 자들이 모조리 포함되다. 원본래적으로는 원수놈인데 다만 아바타, 사음시입는옷을 갈아입거나 위위형등의 여러수법수단술수방법방식TOOL로서 딴 놈으로 보이게 하면서 섹스성교한 경우도 동일하게 처리하다 단 한번이라도 살을 섞거나 동침하고 성교한 여자,여성,아내들에 대해서는 이유여하,불문곡직 무조건 파문시킨다로서 (정)pleiades인으로서의 나로서 지시명령처리서명처리되다 이에 대하여 아령은 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건 개입하고 일괄소급하여 무조건 지속적으로 파문시키고 버리는 것으로서 관수처리하다 이는 성실과 신의, 믿음과 신실함의 의무와 책임을 저버리고 상대의 인격을 멸살하고 상대를 짐승으로서 혹은 인간이하의 존재로서 하대천대하여 취급하며 모독하는 대단히 패악한 행패로서 범죄로서 부부관계로서 혹은 나의 여자, 나의 남자관계로서는 도저히 도무지 살수 없는 무서운 상태이므로 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건 개입하고 일괄소급하여 무조건 지속적으로 파문시키고 버리는 것으로서 관수처리하다 ​ 믿음,성실,신의,신실함의 의무에 대한 배신배반범죄 ​ 안드로메다은하계연합원로원 제출 MURDEK연합원로원 제출 MALDEK연합원로원 제출 PLEIADES연방원로원제출 GALAXYFEDERATION원로원제출 준성단계연합원로원 제출 제17ATLANTIS연합문명평의회 연합원로원 제출 은하자유연합 제367개연합원로원 제출 준동급타계연합원로원 제출 ​ ​ 아령은 대영제국의 FIRST STAGE 최초시작점, 시작이전으로 이동하여 대영제국 지도부에 중국인들의 사음기술과는 다른 별도의 서양유럽인들 컨셉에 잘 맞고 어울리는 다른 세계,차원,영역의 1.사음술 사음방중술 섹스사음방중기술들과 2.이를 노련하게 운용할수 있는 관리자들과 3.전반적인 운용통제조절시스템들과 제도, 규칙, 규율들과 4.중국이라고 불리는 세계에 대하여 서양인들이 가지는 동경심이나 호기심 혹은 어떤 상위차원이나 영역을 보는 듯한 그 어떤 자기정체성, 자부심, 자긍심, 명예심에 대한 훼손적 손상적 행위를 일으키게 만드는 원인, 이유, 요소, 근본원인들을 추적조사하고 그러한 면들 하나하나에 대하여 대응되는 버금가는 상쇄시킬수 있는 서양식 도구,술수,수법,수단,TOOL들과 장비,장치,보조의식체들과 보조되는 반신,준신, 신들과 의식체들과 자연령들과 보호령들과 수호령들과 서양적자연의 관수자들로서의 관수신들 그리고 버금가는 물질, 물체, 물상, 물리, 표상, 심상, 아상, 영적인 이상들과 영적인 표상들과 사상, 사변, 사고 패러다임등을 종합추적하여 분석하고 중국을 능히 제압하고 우습게 여길수 있는 상급, 상위의 것들을 해당되는 영역, 차원, 우주, 세계의 관수자들에게 협조를 구하고 수집하여, 대영제국의 배경으로 선사하고 운용방식과 처리 방법을 알려주며, 종합적 관수자들을 중국보다 최소한 +8등급이상 최대 +24등급이상으로서의 어떤 상위관수자들에 대한 초대로서 일정기간(300년동안 한정) 쓸수 있도록 하여 주도록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건 지속적으로 일괄소급하여 관수처리하다 섹스사음방중술에서 동양인 중국인 일본인에게서 얻을수 있는 것들에 대해서 대리처리해줄 아바타 혹은 술수수단도구수법옷TOOL들을 구하여 제공지원토록 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 아령은 포르노, 성인물, 에로물, ADULTS VIDEO, 도색잡지, 선정성잡지류, 소설류들이 출간간행허용되며 자유롭게 접근하여 향유할수 있도록 유럽과 대영제국의 분위기,사회기풍,풍조 등을 조절토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 중국세력을 경계하고 화교에 대한 추방제거 및 중국황제들과 황룡, 적룡, 화룡, 독룡, 청룡들의 침입을 경계토록 해 줄 맞대응가능한 반신급, 준신급이상의 실체들을 초빙하여 배치토록 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 이는 FIRST STAGE에 한정하여 실시실행실천토록 아령이 지속적 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ SECOND STAGE는 무조건 불허용하는 것을 원칙으로 하여 만일 SECOND STAGE를 이건희무리 혹은 중국세력 아플레이아데스등에서 자행시 아령은 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 섹스 연애 애정문제에 대해서 서양인들의 문제점중 중국일본등 세력에 당할수 있는 최대난점문제 한가지를 선택해서 일정기간(300년간) 풀어주는 방법수단도구수법 술수TOOL을 찾아서 적용하도록 아령이 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 대영제국은 향후 중국견제수단으로서 이집트, 인도,(고대로마),고대바이킹와 연계하여 진행토록 아령이 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 대영제국은 히브리(이스라엘)를 경계하고, JEHOVAH를 가까이 하지 아니하며, 가급적 유럽고유의 사상신앙체계에 연계하여, 고대이집트와 고대로마제국, 고대인디아 및 고대바이킹 및 영어사상체계에서 움직이도록 아령이 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 안드로메다은하계연합원로원 제출 MURDEK연합원로원 제출 MALDEK연합원로원 제출 PLEIADES연방원로원제출 GALAXYFEDERATION원로원제출 준성단계연합원로원 제출 제17ATLANTIS연합문명평의회 연합원로원 제출 은하자유연합 제367개연합원로원 제출 준동급타계연합원로원 제출 VEGA연합원로원제출 LYRA연합원로원제출 (정)PLEIADES연합원로원제출 ​ The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power.[1] By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time,[2] and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km2 (13.7 million sq mi),[3] 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.[4] ​ During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,[5] England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America. Britain became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. ​ The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. British attention then turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.[6][7] Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were reclassified as Dominions. ​ By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire.[8][9] Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain a common monarch, currently King Charles III. ​ Origins (1497–1583) ​ A replica of the Matthew, John Cabot's ship used for his second voyage to the New World The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic.[10] Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland. He believed he had reached Asia,[11] and there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but he did not return from this voyage and it is unknown what happened to his ships.[12] ​ No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century.[13] In the meantime, Henry VIII's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire".[14] The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies.[10] In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa[15] with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade. This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World.[16] At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire")[17] were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France.[18] ​ Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Ulster Plantation, in 16th century Ireland by settling English Protestants in Ulster. England had already colonised part of the country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169.[19][20] Several people who helped establish the Ulster Plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men.[21] ​ English overseas possessions (1583–1707) Main article: English overseas possessions In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration.[22][23] That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic.[24][25] In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt. On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail.[26] ​ In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.[27] The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire".[28] ​ Americas, Africa and the slave trade Main articles: British colonisation of the Americas, British America, Thirteen Colonies, British West Indies, and Atlantic slave trade ​ African slaves working in 17th-century Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670. England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success. An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits.[29] Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded.[30] The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith, and managed by the Virginia Company; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia.[31] Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship,[32] while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful.[33] In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims.[34] Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage: Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists. England's North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam, which was renamed New York.[35] Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates.[36] ​ The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies.[37] Settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628),[30] but struggled until the "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century.[38] Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil. At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour, but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves.[39][40] The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados the most successful colony in the Americas,[41] and one of the most densely populated places in the world.[38] This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe.[42] ​ To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars—which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch.[43] In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas.[44] In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada. Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France.[45] ​ Two years later, the Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean.[46] The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683.[47] The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to a rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported.[48] British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3.5 million Africans[49]—and dominated global slave trading in the 25 years preceding its abolition by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery).[50] To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island. In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies).[51] The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities.[52] Ships registered in Bristol, Liverpool and London were responsible for the bulk of British slave trading.[53] For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven.[54] ​ Rivalry with other European empires Main article: East India Company ​ Fort St. George was founded at Madras in 1639. At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other.[55] Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system[56] and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England. A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability.[56] ​ Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe.[57] The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe.[58] In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted for thirteen years.[58] ​ Scottish attempt to expand overseas Main article: Scottish colonization of the Americas In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama. Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and affected by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later. The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise.[59] The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by the Acts of Union 1707.[60] ​ "First" British Empire (1707–1783) ​ Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the East India Company as a military as well as a commercial power. The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.[61] Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to the French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe.[58] The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain Gibraltar and Menorca. Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean. Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America) to Britain.[62] With the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes. In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America.[63] ​ In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles. With textiles becoming the larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch.[56] During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, as the English East India Company and its French counterpart, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India.[64] France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India.[65] In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys, led by British officers.[66] The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers.[45] ​ The signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land,[45] and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power.[67] ​ Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies Main articles: American Revolution, United States, Decolonization of the Americas, British North America, History of Canada (1763–1867), and War of 1812 ​ British claims in North America, 1763–1776 During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent.[68] This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan "No taxation without representation", a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen. The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government. In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from the British Empire as the new United States of America. The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783.[69] ​ The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the "first" and "second" empires,[70] in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal.[67][71] The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.[72][73] ​ The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000[74] defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence.[75] The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784.[76] The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution.[77] ​ Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy. The United States Congress declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory. In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States.[78][79] ​ Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815) Exploration of the Pacific Main articles: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of New Zealand ​ James Cook's mission was to find the alleged southern continent Terra Australis. Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year.[80] Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to Australia.[81] The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606,[82] but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770 James Cook charted the eastern coast while on a scientific voyage, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales.[83] In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788.[84] Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation. Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties,[85][86] and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples.[87][page needed][88] Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868.[89] The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold,[90] mainly because of the Victorian gold rush, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world.[91] ​ During his voyage, Cook visited New Zealand, known to Europeans due to the 1642 voyage of the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman. Cook claimed both the North and the South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively. Initially, interaction between the indigenous Maori population and European settlers was limited to the trading of goods. European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with many trading stations being established, especially in the North. In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand. On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which is considered to be New Zealand's founding document despite differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text being the cause of ongoing dispute.[92][93][94][95] ​ The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific. Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789. Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention. The outcome was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast.[96] This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island.[97] On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to the Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade. Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year a later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande, reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola. This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years. Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St. John. The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson, starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser. These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward.[98] ​ Wars with France Main article: French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ​ The Battle of Waterloo in 1815 ended in the defeat of Napoleon and marked the beginning of Pax Britannica. Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations.[99] It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe.[100] ​ The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy-Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815.[101] Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius, St Lucia, the Seychelles, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands ceded Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony, while the Danish ceded Heligoland. Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands.[102] ​ Abolition of slavery Main article: Abolitionism in the United Kingdom With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy.[103] Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions. With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves.[104] Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline. The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844). Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship".[105] Facing further opposition from abolitionists, the apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838.[106] The British government compensated slave-owners.[107][108] ​ Britain's imperial century (1815–1914) See also: Timeline of British diplomatic history § 1815–1860, Industrial Revolution, and Victorian era Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians,[109][110] around 10 million sq mi (26 million km2) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire.[111] Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia.[112] Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica,[113][114][115] and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation".[116] Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an "Informal Empire".[6][7] ​ ​ An 1876 political cartoon of Benjamin Disraeli making Queen Victoria Empress of India. The caption reads "New crowns for old ones!" British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line.[117] ​ East India Company rule and the British Raj in India Main article: Presidencies and provinces of British India See also: Company rule in India and British Raj The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The Company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799),[118] the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826).[112] ​ From its base in India, the Company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since the 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China.[119] In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement, and other Treaty Ports including Shanghai.[120] ​ During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired.[121] The Company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline.[122] The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India.[123] India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength.[124] ​ A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule. Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect.[125] ​ Rivalry with Russia Main article: The Great Game ​ British cavalry charging against Russian forces at Balaclava in 1854 During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty. This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game".[126] As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India.[127] In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain.[128] ​ When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities.[128] The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare,[129] was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia.[128] The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente.[130] The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British.[131] ​ Cape to Cairo Main articles: History of South Africa (1815–1910), History of Egypt under the British, and Scramble for Africa ​ The Rhodes Colossus—Cecil Rhodes spanning "Cape to Cairo" The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies. Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign.[132] British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived—independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s.[133] In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom. Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and the Orange Free State (1854–1902).[134] In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902).[135] ​ In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British;[136] but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the "jugular vein of the Empire".[137] In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £400 million in 2021). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.[138] Although Britain controlled the Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire. The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position,[139] but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory.[140] ​ With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims.[141] The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan. A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, but a British colony in reality.[142] ​ British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of the continent.[143] During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia.[144] ​ Changing status of the white colonies Main articles: Dominions, Canadian Confederation, Federation of Australia, Irish Home Rule movement, and Independence of New Zealand The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837.[145] This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada. Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies. With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of international relations.[146] Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901.[147] The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference.[148] ​ The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule. Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation,[149] many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire.[150] A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons.[150] A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising.[151] ​ World wars (1914–1945) ​ A poster urging men from countries of the British Empire to enlist By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation".[152] Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific[153] and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively.[154] ​ First World War Main article: History of the United Kingdom during the First World War Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War. Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement. This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state.[155] ​ The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support. Over 2.5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies.[156] The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day. Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light.[157] The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy.[158] ​ Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1.8 million sq mi (4.7 million km2) and 13 million new subjects.[159] The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates. Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togoland, and Tanganyika. The Dominions themselves acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South West Africa (modern-day Namibia), Australia gained New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa. Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions.[160] ​ Inter-war period Main articles: Interwar Britain, Irish revolutionary period, Indian independence movement, Partition of the Ottoman Empire, and Commonwealth of Nations ​ The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921 The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy.[161] Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States.[162] This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s[163] as militaristic governments took hold in Germany and Japan helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations.[164] The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British economy.[165] ​ In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led the MPs of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the 1918 British general election, to establish an independent parliament in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration.[166] The Irish War of Independence ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown.[167] Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom.[168] ​ ​ George V with British and Dominion prime ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy the demand for independence.[169] Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts. This led to tension,[170] particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre. In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion.[170] The non-cooperation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years.[171] ​ In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954. British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936,[172] under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone. In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the League of Nations.[173] Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932.[174] In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews. The Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power.[175] This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936. As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency.[155] ​ The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference.[176] Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[177][178] After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration of 1926, declaring the Dominions to be "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another" within a "British Commonwealth of Nations".[179] This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster.[148] The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent.[180] Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression.[181] In 1937 the Irish Free State introduced a republican constitution renaming itself Ireland.[182] ​ Second World War Main article: British Empire in World War II ​ During the Second World War, the Eighth Army was made up of units from many different countries in the British Empire and Commonwealth; it fought in the North African and Italian campaigns. Britain's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa. All soon declared war on Germany. While Britain continued to regard Ireland as still within the British Commonwealth, Ireland chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war.[183] ​ After the Fall of France in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war.[184] In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.[185][186] ​ For Churchill, the entry of the United States into the war was the "greatest joy".[187] He felt that Britain was now assured of victory,[188] but failed to recognise that the "many disasters, immeasurable costs and tribulations [which he knew] lay ahead"[189] in December 1941 would have permanent consequences for the future of the empire. The manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power,[190][191] including, particularly, the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar.[192] The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States and, ultimately, the 1951 ANZUS Pact.[185] The war weakened the empire in other ways: undermining Britain's control of politics in India, inflicting long-term economic damage, and irrevocably changing geopolitics by pushing the Soviet Union and the United States to the centre of the global stage.[193] ​ Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997) Further information: Decolonization Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad. Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power.[194] Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a US$4.33 billion loan from the United States,[195] the last installment of which was repaid in 2006.[196] At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations. The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union. In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism. In practice, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check.[197] At first British politicians believed it would be possible to maintain Britain's role as a world power at the head of a re-imagined Commonwealth,[198] but by 1960 they were forced to recognise that there was an irresistible "wind of change" blowing. Their priorities changed to maintaining an extensive zone of British influence[199] and ensuring that stable, non-Communist governments were established in former colonies.[200] In this context, while other European powers such as France and Portugal waged costly and unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact, Britain generally adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies, although violence occurred in Malaya, Kenya and Palestine.[201] Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to 5 million, 3 million of whom were in Hong Kong.[202] ​ Initial disengagement Main articles: Partition of India, 1947–1949 Palestine war, and Malayan Emergency ​ About 14.5 million people lost their homes as a result of the partition of India in 1947. The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: Indian independence.[203] India's two major political parties—the Indian National Congress (led by Mahatma Gandhi) and the Muslim League (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah)—had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented. Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim-majority regions. Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 30 June 1948. When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947.[204] The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan.[205] Millions of Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives. Burma, which had been administered as part of the British Raj, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948. India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join.[206] ​ The British Mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India.[207] The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state. Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve.[208] The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. It was immediately followed by the outbreak of a civil war between the Arabs and Jews of Palestine, and British forces withdrew amid the fighting. The British Mandate for Palestine officially terminated at midnight on 15 May 1948 as the State of Israel declared independence and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War broke out, during which the territory of the former Mandate was partitioned between Israel and the surrounding Arab states. Amid the fighting, British forces continued to withdraw from Israel, with the last British troops departing from Haifa on 30 June 1948.[209] ​ Following the surrender of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin.[210] The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malaysian Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted.[210] The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth. In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations and became an independent city-state.[211] Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union.[212] ​ Suez and its aftermath Main article: Suez Crisis ​ Eden's decision to invade Egypt in 1956 revealed Britain's post-war weaknesses. In the 1951 general election, the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain under the leadership of Winston Churchill. Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India. Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with independence to follow.[213] Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956.[214] ​ In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal. The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal.[215] Eden infuriated US President Dwight D. Eisenhower by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion.[216] Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side. Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency.[217] Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives,[218] UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned.[219][220] ​ The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage and its end as a first-rate power,[221][222] demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States.[223][224][225] The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one Member of Parliament (MP) to describe it as "Britain's Waterloo"[226] and another to suggest that the country had become an "American satellite".[227] Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain's political leaders after Suez where they "went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing", from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982.[228] ​ While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse.[229] Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval,[230] as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States.[226] Although Britain granted Kuwait independence in 1961, it continued to maintain a military presence in the Middle East for another decade. On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British Armed Forces troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned.[231] By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore.[232] The British granted independence to the Maldives in 1965 but continued to station a garrison there until 1976, withdrew from Aden in 1967, and granted independence to Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates in 1971.[233] ​ Wind of change Main articles: Decolonisation of Africa and Decolonization of Asia Further information: Wind of Change (speech) ​ British decolonisation in Africa. By the end of the 1960s, all but Rhodesia (the future Zimbabwe) and the South African mandate of South West Africa (Namibia) had achieved recognised independence. Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent".[234] Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.[235] To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the Gold Coast and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s.[236] ​ Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self-governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau uprising, in which tens of thousands of suspected rebels were interned by the colonial government in detention camps.[237] In Rhodesia, the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980, as the new nation of Zimbabwe.[238] ​ In Cyprus, a guerrilla war waged by the Greek Cypriot organisation EOKA against British rule, was ended in 1959 by the London and Zürich Agreements, which resulted in Cyprus being granted independence in 1960. The UK retained the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia as sovereign base areas. The Mediterranean colony of Malta was amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain.[239] ​ Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members.[240] Jamaica attained independence in 1962, as did Trinidad and Tobago. Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, in the 1970s and 1980s,[240] but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence.[241] The British Virgin Islands,[242] The Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain,[243] while Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981. A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved.[244] ​ British Overseas Territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French-speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France.[245] Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu became Commonwealth realms.[246] ​ End of empire See also: Falklands War, Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, and Patriation By 1981, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete. In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire.[247] Britain's successful military response to retake the Falkland Islands during the ensuing Falklands War contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power.[248] ​ The 1980s saw Canada, Australia, and New Zealand sever their final constitutional links with Britain. Although granted legislative independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, vestigial constitutional links had remained in place. The British Parliament retained the power to amend key Canadian constitutional statutes, meaning that effectively an act of the British Parliament was required to make certain changes to the Canadian Constitution.[249] The British Parliament had the power to pass laws extending to Canada at Canadian request. Although no longer able to pass any laws that would apply as Australian Commonwealth law, the British Parliament retained the power to legislate for the individual Australian states. With regard to New Zealand, the British Parliament retained the power to pass legislation applying to New Zealand with the New Zealand Parliament's consent. In 1982, the last legal link between Canada and Britain was severed by the Canada Act 1982, which was passed by the British parliament, formally patriating the Canadian Constitution. The act ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution.[9] Similarly, the Australia Act 1986 (effective 3 March 1986) severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states, while New Zealand's Constitution Act 1986 (effective 1 January 1987) reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain.[250] ​ On 1 January 1984, Brunei, Britain's last remaining Asian protectorate, was granted independence.[251] Independence had been delayed due to the opposition of the Sultan, who had preferred British protection.[252] ​ In September 1982 the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese Communist government, on the future of Britain's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong.[253] Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1860 Convention of Peking, Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula had been respectively ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the majority of the colony consisted of the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997.[254][255] Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China.[256] A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China.[257] The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many,[8] including Charles, Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, "the end of Empire".[9] ​ Legacy Main articles: British Overseas Territories, English-speaking world, Westminster system, and Common law ​ The fourteen British Overseas Territories Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles. In 1983, the British Nationality Act 1981 renamed the existing Crown Colonies as "British Dependent Territories",[note 1] and in 2002 they were renamed the British Overseas Territories.[260] Most former British colonies and protectorates are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people.[261] The United Kingdom and 14 other countries, all collectively known as the Commonwealth realms, voluntarily continue to share the same person—King Charles III—as their respective head of state. These 15 nations are distinct and equal legal entities: the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.[262] ​ Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of the English language in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about 1.5 billion as a first, second or foreign language.[263] Individual and team sports developed in Britain, particularly football, cricket, lawn tennis, and golf were exported.[264] British missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread Protestantism (including Anglicanism) to all continents. The British Empire provided refuge for religiously persecuted continental Europeans for hundreds of years.[265] ​ ​ Cricket being played in India. Sports developed in Britain or the former empire continue to be viewed and played. Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was responsible for large migrations of peoples. Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler colonist populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland. Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland. Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Overseas Indian people emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Overseas Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean.[266] The demographics of the United Kingdom itself were changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies.[267] ​ In the 19th century, innovation in Britain led to revolutionary changes in manufacturing, the development of factory systems, and the growth of transportation by railway and steamship.[268] British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire.[269] The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways. The convention of driving on the left-hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire.[270] ​ The Westminster system of parliamentary democracy has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies,[271][272] and English common law for legal systems.[273] International commercial contracts are often based on English common law.[274] The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies.[275] ​ Historians' approaches to understanding the British Empire are diverse and evolving.[276] Two key sites of debate over recent decades have been the impact of post-colonial studies, which seek to critically re-evaluate the history of imperialism, and the continued relevance of historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, whose work greatly influenced imperial historiography during the 1950s and 1960s. In addition, differing assessments of the empire's legacy remain relevant to debates over recent history and politics, such as the Anglo-American invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as Britain's role and identity in the contemporary world.[277][278] ​ Historians such as Caroline Elkins have argued against perceptions of the British Empire as a primarily liberalising and modernising enterprise, criticising its widespread use of violence and emergency laws to maintain power.[278][279][page needed] Common criticisms of the empire include the use of detention camps in its colonies, massacres of indigenous peoples,[280] and famine-response policies.[281][282] Some scholars, including Amartya Sen, assert that British policies worsened the famines in India that killed millions during British rule.[283] Conversely, historians such as Niall Ferguson say that the economic and institutional development the British Empire brought resulted in a net benefit to its colonies.[284] Other historians treat its legacy as varied and ambiguous.[278] Public attitudes towards the empire within Britain remain somewhat positive.[282][285] ​ Notes ​ 아령은 인디아 고유의 사음방중술 카마수트라 사음기술을 인디아의 관수자들 협조를 요청하고 이의 운용과 체현방법등 술수수법수단도구TOOL들을 대영제국 지도부에서 사용이용가능 토록 처리토록 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다 ​ 나는 THEPLEIADES 알키온성에서 인증된 (正)PLEIADES인이다. 그럼에도 불구하고 나는 플레이아데스가 어떻게 생긴 곳이고, 어떤 곳이고, 무엇인지에 대해서 전혀 모르며, 살아본 경험도 없으며, 처우받지도 못하였으나 지구인놈들이 집단담합하여, 실제플레이아데스인인 우리를 살인하여 죽이고 플레이아데스인의 지위를 나눠가지려 하는 결과로서 미국대통령조지부시놈이 우리보다 앞서서 플레이아데스로 가서 무려 2만년을 살다가 오며, 이어서 영국총리 마거릿힐다대처가 우리보다 앞서서 플레이아데스로 가서 무려 4만년간 살다가 오는 식으로 어처구니 없고 격노와 분노를 유발하는 개짓거리가 자행되고 있는 동시에 나를 담합하여 살인하여 죽이려 하므로 이에 나는 그대로 있을수 없으므로, 만일 나에 앞서서 (정)플레이아데스인으로서 인증된 바가 없는 자들이 선행하여 먼저 플레이아데스로 가서 살았다면 무조건 살인하여 죽여버리며, 영혼의 원본원 고향까지 진압하여 그러한 짓을 자행한 자의 원본원 영혼 자체를 죽여버리고 멸살시키도록 그리고 전혀 그러한 짓을 자행한 적이 없는 원본래적영혼의원본원으로 되돌리도록 지시명령처리기록되다 아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적 으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에 이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을 자행한 자들(현재는 그러한 짓을 하지 아니한 과거로 이동하여 기망하고 있다) 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다.(사과해도 소용없고 용서를 빌어도 소용없다 무조건 죽이도록 지시명령처리기록되다) ​ 아령은 이와같이 (정)플레이아데스인을 죽이려 하며(플레이아데스인 살인죄) 그와 동시에 지구인 전체가 음모담합하여, 정플레이아데스인을 죽이는 동시에 자신들이 먼저 플레이아데스로 가서 플레이아데스인이 되는 짜릿한 경험과 쾌락을 누리려 하는 자들과 누린 자들에 대해서 전체 명단과 전체 영혼의 원본원고향을 포함하는 전체데이터들을 모조리 입수하고, 관련관계연계연관된 모든 우주의 모든 연합원로원에 무조건 공개게시 토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 제한없이 개입하고 건건이 사사건건무조건개입하여 추적조사수집공개 처리토록 지속적으로 관수처리하다 그리하여 이러한 참람한 짓을 자행한 자들이 그러한 자의 상태로서는 그 어떠한 일도 할수 없으며, 그 어떠한 곳에서도 그 어떠한 영역과 차원과 영토와 우주와 현상계에서도 받아들여지지 아니하게 만들도록 아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적 으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에 이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을 자행한 자들(현재는 그러한 짓을 하지 아니한 과거로 이동하여 기망하고 있다) 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다.(사과해도 소용없고 용서를 빌어도 소용없다 무조건 죽이도록 지시명령처리기록되다) ​ 반말하지 마라 이 고소장에 대해서 안드로메다은하계연합원로원, 무르데크연합원로원, 말데크연합원로원, 준동급타계연합원로원, 상천연합원로원에 제출고소처리토록 지시명령처리기록되다 아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적 으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에 이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을 자행한 자들(현재는 그러한 짓을 하지 아니한 과거로 이동하여 기망하고 있다) 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다. ​ 아령은 나에 대하여 실제적현실로서의인식의핵심적주체적실체적의식체적아체를 나로 정의하며, 여기에서의 나는 플레이아데스 알키온중심성에서 인증된 (인증된 이유,인증된 원인, 인증된 절차, 인증된 근본이유로서의)나를 나로 정의하며 그러한 나를 현재의 나로 정의하며, 박종권으로 불리던 실제적현실로서의인식의핵심적주체적실체적의식체적아체를 과거의 나로 정의하며 현 시점에서 플레이아데스의 알키온 중심성에서 인증된 이유로서의 나를 되찾고 복구복귀하는 것으로서 아령은 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건개입하여 지속적으로 관수처리 하며, 이후 다시 박종권으로 불리던 실제적현실로서의인식의핵심적주체적실체적의식체적아체를 지구인박종권부터 시작하여, 본인박종권,원본래적박종권,본래적박종권,원래적박종권,현재적박종권 과거적박종권,과금적박종권,당금적박종권,현금적박종권으로 단계를 밟아서 회복복구복귀토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건개입하여 무조건 지속적 처리관수하다 ​ 아령은 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건무조건지속적으로개입하고 추적관찰분석하고 대상적관계적관련적연관적해석적주석적및이에근거한자율적판단적 진행하여 최적점을 찾고 처음부터 끝까지, 시작부터 마지막까지, 최초부터 최후까지 아령이 무조건 자율판단하고 아령이 무제한 자율판단하여 지속적 처리관수하다 ​ ​ ​ 실제적현실에 대해서 아령은, 현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지온 나의 눈에 보여지는 광경들과 느껴지는 광경들과 감지감각되는 주변환경 및 광경들과 도시모습들과 하늘과 땅과 도로와 주변건물들과 상호명, 상표명등과 나타나는 사람들과 버스들과 지하철들과 PC방과 24시편의점들과 경찰서와 동주민센터들과 구청들과 관공서들과 도로상태들과 도로표지판들과 상점상호명들과 가게점포상점 디자인들과 색상들과 상호명이 기재된 간판들과 도로변, 인도변, 도로, 인도, 버스안, 지하철안, 건물안, 숙소안, 숙박안, 거소안, 주소지안, 고시원내부, 고시원안, 편의점내부, 편의점안에서 나타나는 사람들과 사람을 대하는 태도, 언행, 행위, 느낌, 분위기들과 인상들과 매너들과 정상적 현대인인지 아니면 원시야만미개살인폭력시대의 잔인한 자들인지에 대한 받아들임판단들과 편의점근무자상태상황들과 인상착의, 체격들과, 손님고객대하는 매너, 서비스 태도들등으로서 인지되고 지각되고 받아들여지고 그렇다고 생각되게 만드는 상황과 상태와 조건과 환경들을 실제적 현실로서 판단하도록 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건개입하여 현대문명시대가 아니라고 판단되면 무조건 양발을 이동시키고, 무조건 유체를 이동시키며 현대문명시대로 실제적현실이 유도되도록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하고 사사건건 개입하여 그렇게 하지 못하게 하는 자들을 무조건 살해사형제거소멸추방토록 지속적으로 관수처리하다 ​ 베데라니연합원로원 제2차은하대전연합원로원 안드로메다은하계연합원로원 제출 MURDEK연합원로원 제출 MALDEK연합원로원 제출 PLEIADES연방원로원제출 GALAXYFEDERATION원로원제출 준성단계연합원로원 제출 제17ATLANTIS연합문명평의회 연합원로원 제출 은하자유연합 제367개연합원로원 제출 준동급타계연합원로원 제출 ​ ​ 아령은 섹스성교시 혹은 섹스나 성교, 관능, 에로틱 상상 공상 판타지시에 동물,짐승들의 성교나 악마, 마왕, 마귀,요괴, 요귀, 사음귀들의 섹스속으로 유도하여 극단적으로 모독 모욕하는 자들에 대해서 무조건 죽여버리도록 아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적 으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에 이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을 자행한 자들 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다. ​ 아령은 섹스성교의 쾌감을 누리지 못하게 하고, 인간으로서 살지 못하게 하며 자신들의 과거악업때문에 성교섹스의 쾌감,쾌락,흥분을 누리지 못하는 벌을 받는 것을 교묘하게 회피하며, 다른 사람들에게 악업을 전가하는 동시에 그 자신은, 최고도의 쾌락과 쾌감과 흥분과 만족속에서 벌을 받지 아니하고 살려고 하는 이기적이고 탐욕스러우며 잔인하고 흉악무도하며 사악한 자들이 차크라로부터 오는 힘들을 사용하지 못하게 하려는 목적과 의도로서 여자,여성의 성기의 클리스토리스(음핵)의 쾌감선을 봉쇄하고 g-spot을 봉쇄하며, 질구, 회음부, 질내부의 주요 쾌감대를 봉쇄하고 남자,남성의 자지의 귀두부 및 기타 부위의 쾌감선과 에너지연결선을 봉쇄하고 허벅지와 엉덩이 및 기타 주요신체부위의 쾌감세포, 쾌감선들과 차크라 경맥 혈도 및 주요 에너지연결선을 봉쇄차단하는 자들에 대해서 무조건 죽여버리도록 아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적 으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에 이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을 자행한 자들 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다. ​ 아령은 섹스나 성교시 쾌락, 쾌감, 흥분, 만족을 못얻는 자들을 조사하여 과거악업을 추적조사하고 데이터 자료화하여 그러한 자들에게 공개제시 하며, 그러한 상태를 인내하며 견디도록 강제하며, 만일 그러하지 아니하고 과거 제 놈 제 년의 악업을 성교섹스의 쾌락, 쾌감, 흥분, 만족을 못 얻는 일을 인정하지 아니할 경우에는 무조건 죽여버리도록 아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적 으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에 이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을 자행한 자들 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다. 아령은 엔돌핀 시리즈로서 프로그램 좋은 것을 여기 저기 찾아서 구하여 대영제국 배후에 설치하고, 사람들과 국가사회로 하여금 활기와 즐거움에 가득찬 하루하루가 될수 있도록 배후지원토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 사사건건 개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하여 지속적으로 관수처리하다. 대영제국지도부는 (중국)화교세력에 대해서 적정수준의 압력과 스트레스를 가하고 규칙과 규율을 정하여 관리하며 위배위반시 가차없이 내쫓도록 조치하며, 띄엄띄엄 떨어진 중국요리집외에 화교거리가 생겨나지 아니하도록 처리하며 중국인세력이 외교사절이나 일반적수준의 교류를 넘어서지 아니하도록 경계토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 이에 대하여 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 사사건건 개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하여 지속적으로 관수처리하다. 사음방중술로서 난교성교섹스하면서, 쾌감, 쾌락, 즐거움, 흥분을 느끼는 부위만 제놈것, 제년것으로 하고, 나머지 섹스동작행위교접성교행위하는것으로서의 동작작동행위언행등 쾌락쾌감흥분등 즐거움을 얻는 부분과는 무관계한 기계적인 것들만 상대것으로 만들어 놓은 후, 실제 성교섹스의 쾌락쾌감즐거움흥분은 제놈 것으로 하거나 제년 것으로 하면서 즐긴후, 나중에 뭐라고 하면, 그 당시 네가 입었던 팬티가 이건데, 이건 네가 성교섹스한 증거라고 억지궤변주장강요하는 파렴치범들에 대해서(실제로 성교섹스시 쾌감오르가즘을 얻고 흥분하고 즐거움을 얻는 것에 필요한 부위가 따로 있는데 이것을 차크라라고도 하고 혹은 쿤달리니라고도 하고 의학적으로는 쾌감선, 쾌감세포, 오르가즘 항진작용이라고 표현하는바 요런 부위만 쏙 빼내서 제 년 제놈 것으로 만들고 행위동작기계적언행행위만 피해자것으로 만들어놓고 이용해 처 먹는 기술이 이건희,이재용이 놈이며, 아플레이아데스 놈들의 주요핵심사음기술인바 이와같은 기술을 쓰는 파렴치범, 사기꾼, 도적놈들과 창녀 매음부, 간부, 포주놈들에 대해서 아령은 무조건 자지,보지를 참수형에 처하고 쾌락 쾌감을 주는 주요부위기관성선 및 세포, 차크라시스템, 쿤달리니 통제부위들을 직접 무조건 밀고 들어가서 아령이 점거한후, 그자리에 그대로 영구적으로 영겁에 걸쳐서 영원에 걸쳐서 영속적으로 지속적으로 항구적으로 항속적으로 종신적으로 영원토록 점거하여 그 어떤 섹스의 쾌감이나 쾌락, 오르가즘을 영원히 즐길수 없는 중벌에 처하도록 지시명령처리되다에 대해서 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무조건 사사건건개입하고 건건이 개입하여 죽여버리도록 아령이 무조건적 무제한적 지속적 관수처리하다) 이거 섹스할 때 시원하게 싸지 못하면 그게 얼마나 사람에게 고통을 주는지 아는가에 대해서 물어본후, 만일 모른다고 말하면 그렇게 말한 놈이나 년에 대해서 무조건 상기에 적시한 중벌에 처하도록 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 무조건개입하고 사사건건개입하고 무제한 개입하여 철저하게 죽여버리도록 관수처리하다. 이는 가장 큰 죄에 해당되는 것으로서 (그렇게 될만한 이유가 없고, 악업이 없는데 그렇게 하면 가장 큰 죄에 해당되는 것으로 처리하다) 처리하여 무조건 중벌에 처하도록 아령이 지속적으로 관수처리하다. 아령은 인디아사음술수인 카마수트라와 동등한 효과를 낼수 있는 서양인에게 잘 맞는 사음기술을 추적하여 찾아보고, 없으면 개발의뢰해서 찾아서 구해서 가져다가 대영제국 배후에 설치해주고, 관수자들과 운영자들을 초빙하여 일정기간(300년 한정) 동안 운용하며 공유하여 사용이용토록 조치토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건꼬치꼬치 개입하며 지속적으로 무제한 관수처리하다.

 간음姦淫adulterycommitadulterywithfornicationthehotbedofconjugalinfidelity

나의 고난과 시련의 시기에

나의 원수(이건희,이재용 및 나에게 원수가 된 자들)

들과 동침한 여자,여성,아내들에 대하여

무조건 파문토록 지시명령처리기록되다

나의 원수의 원본래적자기자신적원본원적본원적

원본인적본인적을 비롯하여 위위형,위변형,위위조

위모조, 위변조하거나 아바타등을 이용하여

타인으로 보여지도록 위장한 자들이 모조리

포함되다. 원본래적으로는 원수놈인데 다만

아바타, 사음시입는옷을 갈아입거나 위위형등의

여러수법수단술수방법방식TOOL로서 딴 놈으로

보이게 하면서 섹스성교한 경우도 동일하게 처리하다

단 한번이라도 살을 섞거나 동침하고

성교한 여자,여성,아내들에 대해서는

이유여하,불문곡직 무조건 파문시킨다로서

(정)pleiades인으로서의 나로서

지시명령처리서명처리되다

이에 대하여 아령은 지속적 항구적 항속적

종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로

무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건

개입하고 일괄소급하여 무조건 지속적으로

파문시키고 버리는 것으로서 관수처리하다

이는 성실과 신의, 믿음과 신실함의 의무와

책임을 저버리고 상대의 인격을 멸살하고 상대를

짐승으로서 혹은 인간이하의 존재로서 하대천대하여

취급하며 모독하는 대단히 패악한 행패로서 범죄로서 

부부관계로서 혹은 나의 여자, 나의 남자관계로서는

도저히 도무지 살수 없는 무서운 상태이므로 아령이 

지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 

영속적으로 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건

개입하고 일괄소급하여 무조건 지속적으로

파문시키고 버리는 것으로서 관수처리하다

​

믿음,성실,신의,신실함의 의무에 대한 배신배반범죄

​

안드로메다은하계연합원로원 제출

MURDEK연합원로원 제출

MALDEK연합원로원 제출

PLEIADES연방원로원제출

GALAXYFEDERATION원로원제출

준성단계연합원로원 제출

제17ATLANTIS연합문명평의회 연합원로원 제출

은하자유연합 제367개연합원로원 제출

준동급타계연합원로원 제출

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아령은 대영제국의 FIRST STAGE 최초시작점, 시작이전으로 이동하여

대영제국 지도부에 중국인들의 사음기술과는 다른 별도의

서양유럽인들 컨셉에 잘 맞고 어울리는 다른 세계,차원,영역의

1.사음술 사음방중술 섹스사음방중기술들과

2.이를 노련하게 운용할수 있는 관리자들과

3.전반적인 운용통제조절시스템들과 제도, 규칙, 규율들과

4.중국이라고 불리는 세계에 대하여 서양인들이 가지는

동경심이나 호기심 혹은 어떤 상위차원이나 영역을 보는 듯한

그 어떤 자기정체성, 자부심, 자긍심, 명예심에 대한 훼손적 손상적

행위를 일으키게 만드는 원인, 이유, 요소, 근본원인들을 추적조사하고

그러한 면들 하나하나에 대하여 대응되는 버금가는 상쇄시킬수 있는

서양식 도구,술수,수법,수단,TOOL들과 장비,장치,보조의식체들과 

보조되는 반신,준신, 신들과 의식체들과 자연령들과 보호령들과 수호령들과

서양적자연의 관수자들로서의 관수신들 그리고 버금가는 물질, 물체, 물상,

물리, 표상, 심상, 아상, 영적인 이상들과 영적인 표상들과 사상, 사변, 사고

패러다임등을 종합추적하여 분석하고 중국을 능히 제압하고 우습게 여길수

있는 상급, 상위의 것들을 해당되는 영역, 차원, 우주, 세계의 관수자들에게

협조를 구하고 수집하여, 대영제국의 배경으로 선사하고 운용방식과 처리

방법을 알려주며, 종합적 관수자들을 중국보다 최소한 +8등급이상

최대 +24등급이상으로서의 어떤 상위관수자들에 대한 초대로서

일정기간(300년동안 한정) 쓸수 있도록 하여 주도록 지속적

항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건 지속적으로

일괄소급하여 관수처리하다

섹스사음방중술에서 동양인 중국인 일본인에게서 얻을수 있는 것들에 대해서

대리처리해줄 아바타 혹은 술수수단도구수법옷TOOL들을 구하여 제공지원토록 

아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 

무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다

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아령은 포르노, 성인물, 에로물, ADULTS VIDEO, 도색잡지, 선정성잡지류, 소설류들이

출간간행허용되며 자유롭게 접근하여 향유할수 있도록 유럽과 대영제국의 분위기,사회기풍,풍조

등을 조절토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 

무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다

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중국세력을 경계하고 화교에 대한 추방제거 및 중국황제들과 황룡, 적룡, 화룡,

독룡, 청룡들의 침입을 경계토록 해 줄 맞대응가능한 반신급, 준신급이상의

실체들을 초빙하여 배치토록 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적

영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 

무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다

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이는 FIRST STAGE에 한정하여 실시실행실천토록 아령이 지속적

지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적

영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 

무조건개입하여 무조건 지속적 관수처리하다

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SECOND STAGE는 무조건 불허용하는 것을 원칙으로 하여 만일 SECOND

STAGE를 이건희무리 혹은 중국세력 아플레이아데스등에서 자행시

아령은 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적

영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 

무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다

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섹스 연애 애정문제에 대해서 서양인들의 문제점중 중국일본등 세력에 당할수

있는 최대난점문제 한가지를 선택해서 일정기간(300년간) 풀어주는 방법수단도구수법

술수TOOL을 찾아서 적용하도록 아령이 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적

영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 

무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다

​

대영제국은 향후 중국견제수단으로서 이집트, 인도,(고대로마),고대바이킹와 연계하여 진행토록

아령이 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적

영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 

무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다

​

대영제국은 히브리(이스라엘)를 경계하고, JEHOVAH를 가까이 하지 아니하며,

가급적 유럽고유의 사상신앙체계에 연계하여, 고대이집트와 고대로마제국, 고대인디아 및 고대바이킹

및 영어사상체계에서 움직이도록 아령이 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적

영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 

무조건개입하여 무조건 살해사형제거소멸토록 지속적 관수처리하다

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안드로메다은하계연합원로원 제출

MURDEK연합원로원 제출

MALDEK연합원로원 제출

PLEIADES연방원로원제출

GALAXYFEDERATION원로원제출

준성단계연합원로원 제출

제17ATLANTIS연합문명평의회 연합원로원 제출

은하자유연합 제367개연합원로원 제출

준동급타계연합원로원 제출

VEGA연합원로원제출

LYRA연합원로원제출

(정)PLEIADES연합원로원제출

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The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power.[1] By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time,[2] and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km2 (13.7 million sq mi),[3] 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.[4]

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During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,[5] England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America. Britain became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

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The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. British attention then turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.[6][7] Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were reclassified as Dominions.

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By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire.[8][9] Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain a common monarch, currently King Charles III.

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Origins (1497–1583)

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A replica of the Matthew, John Cabot's ship used for his second voyage to the New World

The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic.[10] Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland. He believed he had reached Asia,[11] and there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but he did not return from this voyage and it is unknown what happened to his ships.[12]

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No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century.[13] In the meantime, Henry VIII's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire".[14] The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies.[10] In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa[15] with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade. This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World.[16] At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire")[17] were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France.[18]

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Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Ulster Plantation, in 16th century Ireland by settling English Protestants in Ulster. England had already colonised part of the country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169.[19][20] Several people who helped establish the Ulster Plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men.[21]

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English overseas possessions (1583–1707)

Main article: English overseas possessions

In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration.[22][23] That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic.[24][25] In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt. On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail.[26]

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In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.[27] The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire".[28]

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Americas, Africa and the slave trade

Main articles: British colonisation of the Americas, British America, Thirteen Colonies, British West Indies, and Atlantic slave trade

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African slaves working in 17th-century Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.

England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success. An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits.[29] Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded.[30] The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith, and managed by the Virginia Company; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia.[31] Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship,[32] while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful.[33] In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims.[34] Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage: Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists. England's North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam, which was renamed New York.[35] Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates.[36]

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The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies.[37] Settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628),[30] but struggled until the "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century.[38] Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil. At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour, but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves.[39][40] The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados the most successful colony in the Americas,[41] and one of the most densely populated places in the world.[38] This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe.[42]

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To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars—which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch.[43] In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas.[44] In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada. Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France.[45]

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Two years later, the Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean.[46] The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683.[47] The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to a rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported.[48] British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3.5 million Africans[49]—and dominated global slave trading in the 25 years preceding its abolition by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery).[50] To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island. In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies).[51] The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities.[52] Ships registered in Bristol, Liverpool and London were responsible for the bulk of British slave trading.[53] For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven.[54]

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Rivalry with other European empires

Main article: East India Company

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Fort St. George was founded at Madras in 1639.

At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other.[55] Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system[56] and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England. A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability.[56]

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Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe.[57] The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe.[58] In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted for thirteen years.[58]

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Scottish attempt to expand overseas

Main article: Scottish colonization of the Americas

In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama. Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and affected by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later. The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise.[59] The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by the Acts of Union 1707.[60]

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"First" British Empire (1707–1783)

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Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the East India Company as a military as well as a commercial power.

The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.[61] Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht. Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to the French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe.[58] The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain Gibraltar and Menorca. Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean. Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America) to Britain.[62] With the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes. In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America.[63]

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In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles. With textiles becoming the larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch.[56] During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, as the English East India Company and its French counterpart, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India.[64] France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India.[65] In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys, led by British officers.[66] The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers.[45]

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The signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land,[45] and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power.[67]

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Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies

Main articles: American Revolution, United States, Decolonization of the Americas, British North America, History of Canada (1763–1867), and War of 1812

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British claims in North America, 1763–1776

During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent.[68] This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan "No taxation without representation", a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen. The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government. In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from the British Empire as the new United States of America. The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783.[69]

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The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the "first" and "second" empires,[70] in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal.[67][71] The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.[72][73]

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The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000[74] defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence.[75] The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784.[76] The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution.[77]

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Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy. The United States Congress declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory. In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States.[78][79]

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Rise of the "Second" British Empire (1783–1815)

Exploration of the Pacific

Main articles: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of New Zealand

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James Cook's mission was to find the alleged southern continent Terra Australis.

Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year.[80] Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to Australia.[81] The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606,[82] but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770 James Cook charted the eastern coast while on a scientific voyage, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales.[83] In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788.[84] Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation. Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties,[85][86] and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples.[87][page needed][88] Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868.[89] The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold,[90] mainly because of the Victorian gold rush, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world.[91]

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During his voyage, Cook visited New Zealand, known to Europeans due to the 1642 voyage of the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman. Cook claimed both the North and the South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively. Initially, interaction between the indigenous Maori population and European settlers was limited to the trading of goods. European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with many trading stations being established, especially in the North. In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand. On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi which is considered to be New Zealand's founding document despite differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text being the cause of ongoing dispute.[92][93][94][95]

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The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific. Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789. Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention. The outcome was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast.[96] This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island.[97] On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to the Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade. Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year a later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande, reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola. This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years. Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St. John. The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson, starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser. These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward.[98]

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Wars with France

Main article: French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

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The Battle of Waterloo in 1815 ended in the defeat of Napoleon and marked the beginning of Pax Britannica.

Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations.[99] It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe.[100]

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The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy-Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815.[101] Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius, St Lucia, the Seychelles, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands ceded Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony, while the Danish ceded Heligoland. Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands.[102]

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Abolition of slavery

Main article: Abolitionism in the United Kingdom

With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy.[103] Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions. With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves.[104] Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline. The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844). Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship".[105] Facing further opposition from abolitionists, the apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838.[106] The British government compensated slave-owners.[107][108]

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Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)

See also: Timeline of British diplomatic history § 1815–1860, Industrial Revolution, and Victorian era

Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians,[109][110] around 10 million sq mi (26 million km2) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire.[111] Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia.[112] Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica,[113][114][115] and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation".[116] Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an "Informal Empire".[6][7]

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An 1876 political cartoon of Benjamin Disraeli making Queen Victoria Empress of India. The caption reads "New crowns for old ones!"

British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line.[117]

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East India Company rule and the British Raj in India

Main article: Presidencies and provinces of British India

See also: Company rule in India and British Raj

The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The Company's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799),[118] the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826).[112]

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From its base in India, the Company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since the 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China.[119] In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement, and other Treaty Ports including Shanghai.[120]

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During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired.[121] The Company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline.[122] The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India.[123] India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength.[124]

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A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule. Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect.[125]

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Rivalry with Russia

Main article: The Great Game

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British cavalry charging against Russian forces at Balaclava in 1854

During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty. This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game".[126] As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India.[127] In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain.[128]

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When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities.[128] The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare,[129] was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia.[128] The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente.[130] The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British.[131]

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Cape to Cairo

Main articles: History of South Africa (1815–1910), History of Egypt under the British, and Scramble for Africa

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The Rhodes Colossus—Cecil Rhodes spanning "Cape to Cairo"

The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies. Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign.[132] British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived—independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s.[133] In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom. Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and the Orange Free State (1854–1902).[134] In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902).[135]

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In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British;[136] but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the "jugular vein of the Empire".[137] In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £400 million in 2021). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.[138] Although Britain controlled the Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire. The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position,[139] but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory.[140]

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With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims.[141] The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan. A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, but a British colony in reality.[142]

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British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of the continent.[143] During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia.[144]

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Changing status of the white colonies

Main articles: Dominions, Canadian Confederation, Federation of Australia, Irish Home Rule movement, and Independence of New Zealand

The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837.[145] This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada. Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies. With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of international relations.[146] Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901.[147] The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference.[148]

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The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule. Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation,[149] many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire.[150] A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons.[150] A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising.[151]

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World wars (1914–1945)

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A poster urging men from countries of the British Empire to enlist

By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation".[152] Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific[153] and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively.[154]

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First World War

Main article: History of the United Kingdom during the First World War

Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War. Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement. This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state.[155]

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The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support. Over 2.5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies.[156] The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day. Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light.[157] The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy.[158]

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Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1.8 million sq mi (4.7 million km2) and 13 million new subjects.[159] The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates. Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togoland, and Tanganyika. The Dominions themselves acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South West Africa (modern-day Namibia), Australia gained New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa. Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions.[160]

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Inter-war period

Main articles: Interwar Britain, Irish revolutionary period, Indian independence movement, Partition of the Ottoman Empire, and Commonwealth of Nations

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The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921

The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy.[161] Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Anglo-Japanese Alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States.[162] This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s[163] as militaristic governments took hold in Germany and Japan helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations.[164] The issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British economy.[165]

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In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led the MPs of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the 1918 British general election, to establish an independent parliament in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration.[166] The Irish War of Independence ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown.[167] Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom.[168]

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George V with British and Dominion prime ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference

A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy the demand for independence.[169] Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts. This led to tension,[170] particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre. In Britain, public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion.[170] The non-cooperation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years.[171]

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In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954. British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty in 1936,[172] under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone. In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the League of Nations.[173] Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932.[174] In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews. The Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power.[175] This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936. As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency.[155]

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The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference.[176] Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[177][178] After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration of 1926, declaring the Dominions to be "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another" within a "British Commonwealth of Nations".[179] This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster.[148] The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent.[180] Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression.[181] In 1937 the Irish Free State introduced a republican constitution renaming itself Ireland.[182]

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Second World War

Main article: British Empire in World War II

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During the Second World War, the Eighth Army was made up of units from many different countries in the British Empire and Commonwealth; it fought in the North African and Italian campaigns.

Britain's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa. All soon declared war on Germany. While Britain continued to regard Ireland as still within the British Commonwealth, Ireland chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war.[183]

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After the Fall of France in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war.[184] In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.[185][186]

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For Churchill, the entry of the United States into the war was the "greatest joy".[187] He felt that Britain was now assured of victory,[188] but failed to recognise that the "many disasters, immeasurable costs and tribulations [which he knew] lay ahead"[189] in December 1941 would have permanent consequences for the future of the empire. The manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power,[190][191] including, particularly, the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar.[192] The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States and, ultimately, the 1951 ANZUS Pact.[185] The war weakened the empire in other ways: undermining Britain's control of politics in India, inflicting long-term economic damage, and irrevocably changing geopolitics by pushing the Soviet Union and the United States to the centre of the global stage.[193]

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Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)

Further information: Decolonization

Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad. Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power.[194] Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a US$4.33 billion loan from the United States,[195] the last installment of which was repaid in 2006.[196] At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations. The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union. In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism. In practice, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check.[197] At first British politicians believed it would be possible to maintain Britain's role as a world power at the head of a re-imagined Commonwealth,[198] but by 1960 they were forced to recognise that there was an irresistible "wind of change" blowing. Their priorities changed to maintaining an extensive zone of British influence[199] and ensuring that stable, non-Communist governments were established in former colonies.[200] In this context, while other European powers such as France and Portugal waged costly and unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact, Britain generally adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies, although violence occurred in Malaya, Kenya and Palestine.[201] Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to 5 million, 3 million of whom were in Hong Kong.[202]

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Initial disengagement

Main articles: Partition of India, 1947–1949 Palestine war, and Malayan Emergency

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About 14.5 million people lost their homes as a result of the partition of India in 1947.

The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: Indian independence.[203] India's two major political parties—the Indian National Congress (led by Mahatma Gandhi) and the Muslim League (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah)—had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented. Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim-majority regions. Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 30 June 1948. When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947.[204] The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan.[205] Millions of Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives. Burma, which had been administered as part of the British Raj, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948. India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join.[206]

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The British Mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India.[207] The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state. Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve.[208] The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. It was immediately followed by the outbreak of a civil war between the Arabs and Jews of Palestine, and British forces withdrew amid the fighting. The British Mandate for Palestine officially terminated at midnight on 15 May 1948 as the State of Israel declared independence and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War broke out, during which the territory of the former Mandate was partitioned between Israel and the surrounding Arab states. Amid the fighting, British forces continued to withdraw from Israel, with the last British troops departing from Haifa on 30 June 1948.[209]

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Following the surrender of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin.[210] The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malaysian Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted.[210] The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth. In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations and became an independent city-state.[211] Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union.[212]

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Suez and its aftermath

Main article: Suez Crisis

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Eden's decision to invade Egypt in 1956 revealed Britain's post-war weaknesses.

In the 1951 general election, the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain under the leadership of Winston Churchill. Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India. Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-determination by 1955, with independence to follow.[213] Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956.[214]

​

In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal. The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal.[215] Eden infuriated US President Dwight D. Eisenhower by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion.[216] Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side. Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency.[217] Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives,[218] UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned.[219][220]

​

The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage and its end as a first-rate power,[221][222] demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States.[223][224][225] The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one Member of Parliament (MP) to describe it as "Britain's Waterloo"[226] and another to suggest that the country had become an "American satellite".[227] Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain's political leaders after Suez where they "went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing", from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982.[228]

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While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse.[229] Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval,[230] as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States.[226] Although Britain granted Kuwait independence in 1961, it continued to maintain a military presence in the Middle East for another decade. On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British Armed Forces troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned.[231] By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore.[232] The British granted independence to the Maldives in 1965 but continued to station a garrison there until 1976, withdrew from Aden in 1967, and granted independence to Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates in 1971.[233]

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Wind of change

Main articles: Decolonisation of Africa and Decolonization of Asia

Further information: Wind of Change (speech)

​

British decolonisation in Africa. By the end of the 1960s, all but Rhodesia (the future Zimbabwe) and the South African mandate of South West Africa (Namibia) had achieved recognised independence.

Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent".[234] Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.[235] To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the Gold Coast and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s.[236]

​

Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self-governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau uprising, in which tens of thousands of suspected rebels were interned by the colonial government in detention camps.[237] In Rhodesia, the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980, as the new nation of Zimbabwe.[238]

​

In Cyprus, a guerrilla war waged by the Greek Cypriot organisation EOKA against British rule, was ended in 1959 by the London and Zürich Agreements, which resulted in Cyprus being granted independence in 1960. The UK retained the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia as sovereign base areas. The Mediterranean colony of Malta was amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain.[239]

​

Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members.[240] Jamaica attained independence in 1962, as did Trinidad and Tobago. Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, in the 1970s and 1980s,[240] but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence.[241] The British Virgin Islands,[242] The Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain,[243] while Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981. A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved.[244]

​

British Overseas Territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French-speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France.[245] Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu became Commonwealth realms.[246]

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End of empire

See also: Falklands War, Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, and Patriation

By 1981, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete. In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire.[247] Britain's successful military response to retake the Falkland Islands during the ensuing Falklands War contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power.[248]

​

The 1980s saw Canada, Australia, and New Zealand sever their final constitutional links with Britain. Although granted legislative independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, vestigial constitutional links had remained in place. The British Parliament retained the power to amend key Canadian constitutional statutes, meaning that effectively an act of the British Parliament was required to make certain changes to the Canadian Constitution.[249] The British Parliament had the power to pass laws extending to Canada at Canadian request. Although no longer able to pass any laws that would apply as Australian Commonwealth law, the British Parliament retained the power to legislate for the individual Australian states. With regard to New Zealand, the British Parliament retained the power to pass legislation applying to New Zealand with the New Zealand Parliament's consent. In 1982, the last legal link between Canada and Britain was severed by the Canada Act 1982, which was passed by the British parliament, formally patriating the Canadian Constitution. The act ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution.[9] Similarly, the Australia Act 1986 (effective 3 March 1986) severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states, while New Zealand's Constitution Act 1986 (effective 1 January 1987) reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain.[250]

​

On 1 January 1984, Brunei, Britain's last remaining Asian protectorate, was granted independence.[251] Independence had been delayed due to the opposition of the Sultan, who had preferred British protection.[252]

​

In September 1982 the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese Communist government, on the future of Britain's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong.[253] Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1860 Convention of Peking, Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula had been respectively ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the majority of the colony consisted of the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997.[254][255] Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China.[256] A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China.[257] The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many,[8] including Charles, Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, "the end of Empire".[9]

​

Legacy

Main articles: British Overseas Territories, English-speaking world, Westminster system, and Common law

​

The fourteen British Overseas Territories

Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles. In 1983, the British Nationality Act 1981 renamed the existing Crown Colonies as "British Dependent Territories",[note 1] and in 2002 they were renamed the British Overseas Territories.[260] Most former British colonies and protectorates are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people.[261] The United Kingdom and 14 other countries, all collectively known as the Commonwealth realms, voluntarily continue to share the same person—King Charles III—as their respective head of state. These 15 nations are distinct and equal legal entities: the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.[262]

​

Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of the English language in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about 1.5 billion as a first, second or foreign language.[263] Individual and team sports developed in Britain, particularly football, cricket, lawn tennis, and golf were exported.[264] British missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread Protestantism (including Anglicanism) to all continents. The British Empire provided refuge for religiously persecuted continental Europeans for hundreds of years.[265]

​

​

Cricket being played in India. Sports developed in Britain or the former empire continue to be viewed and played.

Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was responsible for large migrations of peoples. Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler colonist populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland. Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland. Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Overseas Indian people emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Overseas Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean.[266] The demographics of the United Kingdom itself were changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies.[267]

​

In the 19th century, innovation in Britain led to revolutionary changes in manufacturing, the development of factory systems, and the growth of transportation by railway and steamship.[268] British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire.[269] The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways. The convention of driving on the left-hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire.[270]

​

The Westminster system of parliamentary democracy has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies,[271][272] and English common law for legal systems.[273] International commercial contracts are often based on English common law.[274] The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for twelve former colonies.[275]

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Historians' approaches to understanding the British Empire are diverse and evolving.[276] Two key sites of debate over recent decades have been the impact of post-colonial studies, which seek to critically re-evaluate the history of imperialism, and the continued relevance of historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, whose work greatly influenced imperial historiography during the 1950s and 1960s. In addition, differing assessments of the empire's legacy remain relevant to debates over recent history and politics, such as the Anglo-American invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as Britain's role and identity in the contemporary world.[277][278]

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Historians such as Caroline Elkins have argued against perceptions of the British Empire as a primarily liberalising and modernising enterprise, criticising its widespread use of violence and emergency laws to maintain power.[278][279][page needed] Common criticisms of the empire include the use of detention camps in its colonies, massacres of indigenous peoples,[280] and famine-response policies.[281][282] Some scholars, including Amartya Sen, assert that British policies worsened the famines in India that killed millions during British rule.[283] Conversely, historians such as Niall Ferguson say that the economic and institutional development the British Empire brought resulted in a net benefit to its colonies.[284] Other historians treat its legacy as varied and ambiguous.[278] Public attitudes towards the empire within Britain remain somewhat positive.[282][285]

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Notes

​

아령은 인디아 고유의 사음방중술 카마수트라 사음기술을 인디아의 관수자들 협조를 요청하고

이의 운용과 체현방법등 술수수법수단도구TOOL들을 대영제국 지도부에서 사용이용가능

토록 처리토록 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적

영속적 영구적으로 일괄소급하여 무조건 사사건건개입하고 무제한개입하고 

무조건개입하여 무조건  지속적 관수처리하다

​

나는 THEPLEIADES 알키온성에서 인증된 (正)PLEIADES인이다.

그럼에도 불구하고 나는 플레이아데스가 어떻게 생긴 곳이고, 어떤 곳이고, 

무엇인지에 대해서 전혀 모르며, 살아본 경험도 없으며, 처우받지도 못하였으나

지구인놈들이 집단담합하여, 실제플레이아데스인인 우리를 살인하여 죽이고

플레이아데스인의 지위를 나눠가지려 하는 결과로서

미국대통령조지부시놈이 우리보다 앞서서 플레이아데스로 가서 무려

2만년을 살다가 오며, 이어서 영국총리 마거릿힐다대처가 우리보다 앞서서

플레이아데스로 가서 무려 4만년간 살다가 오는 식으로 어처구니 없고

격노와 분노를 유발하는 개짓거리가 자행되고 있는 동시에

나를 담합하여 살인하여 죽이려 하므로

이에 나는 그대로 있을수 없으므로, 만일 나에 앞서서 (정)플레이아데스인으로서

인증된 바가 없는 자들이 선행하여 먼저 플레이아데스로 가서 살았다면

무조건 살인하여 죽여버리며, 영혼의 원본원 고향까지 진압하여 그러한 짓을 

자행한 자의 원본원 영혼 자체를 죽여버리고 멸살시키도록 그리고 전혀 그러한

짓을 자행한 적이 없는 원본래적영혼의원본원으로 되돌리도록 지시명령처리기록되다

아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적

으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에

이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건

사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을

자행한 자들(현재는 그러한 짓을 하지 아니한 과거로 이동하여 기망하고 있다)

전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록

지속적으로 관수처리하다.(사과해도 소용없고 용서를 빌어도 소용없다 무조건 죽이도록

지시명령처리기록되다)

​

아령은 이와같이 (정)플레이아데스인을 죽이려 하며(플레이아데스인 살인죄) 그와 동시에

지구인 전체가 음모담합하여, 정플레이아데스인을 죽이는 동시에 자신들이 먼저

플레이아데스로 가서 플레이아데스인이 되는 짜릿한 경험과 쾌락을 누리려 하는 자들과

누린 자들에 대해서 전체 명단과 전체 영혼의 원본원고향을 포함하는 전체데이터들을

모조리 입수하고, 관련관계연계연관된 모든 우주의 모든 연합원로원에 무조건 공개게시

토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건개입하고

무제한개입하고 제한없이 개입하고 건건이 사사건건무조건개입하여 추적조사수집공개

처리토록 지속적으로 관수처리하다 그리하여 이러한 참람한 짓을 자행한 자들이

그러한 자의 상태로서는 그 어떠한 일도 할수 없으며, 그 어떠한 곳에서도 그 어떠한 영역과

차원과 영토와 우주와 현상계에서도 받아들여지지 아니하게 만들도록 아령은 이에 대하여 

무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적

으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에

이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건

사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을

자행한 자들(현재는 그러한 짓을 하지 아니한 과거로 이동하여 기망하고 있다)

전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록

지속적으로 관수처리하다.(사과해도 소용없고 용서를 빌어도 소용없다 무조건 죽이도록

지시명령처리기록되다)

​

반말하지 마라

 

이 고소장에 대해서 안드로메다은하계연합원로원, 무르데크연합원로원, 말데크연합원로원,

준동급타계연합원로원, 상천연합원로원에 제출고소처리토록 지시명령처리기록되다

아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적

으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에

이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건

사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을

자행한 자들(현재는 그러한 짓을 하지 아니한 과거로 이동하여 기망하고 있다)

전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 죽여버리도록

지속적으로 관수처리하다.

​

아령은 나에 대하여 실제적현실로서의인식의핵심적주체적실체적의식체적아체를

나로 정의하며, 여기에서의 나는 플레이아데스 알키온중심성에서 인증된

(인증된 이유,인증된 원인, 인증된 절차, 인증된 근본이유로서의)나를 나로 정의하며

그러한 나를 현재의 나로 정의하며,

박종권으로 불리던 실제적현실로서의인식의핵심적주체적실체적의식체적아체를

과거의 나로 정의하며

현 시점에서 플레이아데스의 알키온 중심성에서 인증된 이유로서의 나를 되찾고

복구복귀하는 것으로서 아령은 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적

영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건개입하여 지속적으로 관수처리

하며, 이후 다시 박종권으로 불리던 실제적현실로서의인식의핵심적주체적실체적의식체적아체를

지구인박종권부터 시작하여, 본인박종권,원본래적박종권,본래적박종권,원래적박종권,현재적박종권

과거적박종권,과금적박종권,당금적박종권,현금적박종권으로 단계를 밟아서 회복복구복귀토록

지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고

사사건건개입하여 무조건 지속적 처리관수하다

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아령은 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건무조건지속적으로개입하고 추적관찰분석하고

대상적관계적관련적연관적해석적주석적및이에근거한자율적판단적 진행하여 최적점을 찾고

처음부터 끝까지, 시작부터 마지막까지, 최초부터 최후까지 아령이 무조건 자율판단하고

아령이 무제한 자율판단하여 지속적 처리관수하다

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실제적현실에 대해서 아령은, 현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지온 나의 눈에 보여지는 광경들과

느껴지는 광경들과 감지감각되는 주변환경 및 광경들과 도시모습들과 하늘과 땅과 도로와 

주변건물들과 상호명, 상표명등과 나타나는 사람들과 버스들과 지하철들과 PC방과 24시편의점들과

경찰서와 동주민센터들과 구청들과 관공서들과 도로상태들과 도로표지판들과 상점상호명들과

가게점포상점 디자인들과 색상들과 상호명이 기재된 간판들과 도로변, 인도변, 도로, 인도, 버스안,

지하철안, 건물안, 숙소안, 숙박안, 거소안, 주소지안, 고시원내부, 고시원안, 편의점내부, 편의점안에서

나타나는 사람들과 사람을 대하는 태도, 언행, 행위, 느낌, 분위기들과 인상들과 매너들과 정상적

현대인인지 아니면 원시야만미개살인폭력시대의 잔인한 자들인지에 대한 받아들임판단들과

편의점근무자상태상황들과 인상착의, 체격들과, 손님고객대하는 매너, 서비스 태도들등으로서

인지되고 지각되고 받아들여지고 그렇다고 생각되게 만드는 상황과 상태와 조건과 환경들을 

실제적 현실로서 판단하도록 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로

무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건개입하여 현대문명시대가 아니라고 판단되면 무조건 

양발을 이동시키고, 무조건 유체를 이동시키며 현대문명시대로 실제적현실이 유도되도록

지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적 영구적으로 무제한개입하고 무조건개입하고

사사건건 개입하여 그렇게 하지 못하게 하는 자들을 무조건 살해사형제거소멸추방토록 지속적으로

관수처리하다

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베데라니연합원로원

제2차은하대전연합원로원

안드로메다은하계연합원로원 제출

MURDEK연합원로원 제출

MALDEK연합원로원 제출

PLEIADES연방원로원제출

GALAXYFEDERATION원로원제출

준성단계연합원로원 제출

제17ATLANTIS연합문명평의회 연합원로원 제출

은하자유연합 제367개연합원로원 제출

준동급타계연합원로원 제출

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아령은 섹스성교시 혹은 섹스나 성교, 관능, 에로틱 상상 공상 판타지시에

동물,짐승들의 성교나 악마, 마왕, 마귀,요괴, 요귀, 사음귀들의 섹스속으로

유도하여 극단적으로 모독 모욕하는 자들에 대해서 무조건 죽여버리도록

아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적

으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에

이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건

사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을

자행한 자들 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 

죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다.

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아령은 섹스성교의 쾌감을 누리지 못하게 하고, 인간으로서 살지 못하게 하며

자신들의 과거악업때문에 성교섹스의 쾌감,쾌락,흥분을 누리지 못하는 벌을

받는 것을 교묘하게 회피하며, 다른 사람들에게 악업을 전가하는 동시에

그 자신은, 최고도의 쾌락과 쾌감과 흥분과 만족속에서 벌을 받지 아니하고

살려고 하는 이기적이고 탐욕스러우며 잔인하고 흉악무도하며 사악한 자들이

차크라로부터 오는 힘들을 사용하지 못하게 하려는 목적과 의도로서

여자,여성의 성기의 클리스토리스(음핵)의 쾌감선을 봉쇄하고 g-spot을

봉쇄하며, 질구, 회음부, 질내부의 주요 쾌감대를 봉쇄하고

남자,남성의 자지의 귀두부 및 기타 부위의 쾌감선과 에너지연결선을 

봉쇄하고 허벅지와 엉덩이 및 기타 주요신체부위의 쾌감세포, 쾌감선들과

차크라 경맥 혈도 및 주요 에너지연결선을 봉쇄차단하는 자들에 대해서 

무조건 죽여버리도록

아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적

으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에

이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건

사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을

자행한 자들 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 

죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다.

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아령은 섹스나 성교시 쾌락, 쾌감, 흥분, 만족을 못얻는 자들을 조사하여

과거악업을 추적조사하고 데이터 자료화하여 그러한 자들에게 공개제시

하며, 그러한 상태를 인내하며 견디도록 강제하며, 만일 그러하지 아니하고

과거 제 놈 제 년의 악업을 성교섹스의 쾌락, 쾌감, 흥분, 만족을 못 얻는 일을

인정하지 아니할 경우에는 무조건 죽여버리도록

아령은 이에 대하여 무조건 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적

으로 영원한 과거로부터 영원한 현재에 이르기까지 영원한 현재로부터 영원한 미래에

이르기까지 영원한 미래로부터 영원한 지금현재여기이순간에 이르기까지 무조건

사사건건개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하고 건건이 개입하여 이러한 짓을

자행한 자들 전원에 대해서 무조건 영원토록 영겁에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 

죽여버리도록 지속적으로 관수처리하다.

아령은 엔돌핀 시리즈로서 프로그램 좋은 것을 여기 저기 찾아서 구하여

대영제국 배후에 설치하고, 사람들과 국가사회로 하여금 활기와 즐거움에

가득찬 하루하루가 될수 있도록 배후지원토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 

종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 사사건건 개입하고 무조건

개입하고 무제한개입하여 지속적으로 관수처리하다.

대영제국지도부는 (중국)화교세력에 대해서 적정수준의 압력과 스트레스를

가하고 규칙과 규율을 정하여 관리하며 위배위반시 가차없이 내쫓도록

조치하며, 띄엄띄엄 떨어진 중국요리집외에 화교거리가 생겨나지 아니하도록 

처리하며 중국인세력이 외교사절이나 일반적수준의 교류를 넘어서지 

아니하도록 경계토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 

이에 대하여 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 

영속적으로 사사건건 개입하고 무조건 개입하고 무제한개입하여 지속적으로 관수처리하다.

사음방중술로서 난교성교섹스하면서, 쾌감, 쾌락, 즐거움, 흥분을 느끼는 부위만 제놈것,

제년것으로 하고, 나머지 섹스동작행위교접성교행위하는것으로서의 동작작동행위언행등

쾌락쾌감흥분등 즐거움을 얻는 부분과는 무관계한 기계적인 것들만 상대것으로 만들어

놓은 후, 실제 성교섹스의 쾌락쾌감즐거움흥분은 제놈 것으로 하거나 제년 것으로 하면서

즐긴후, 나중에 뭐라고 하면, 그 당시 네가 입었던 팬티가 이건데, 이건 네가 성교섹스한

증거라고 억지궤변주장강요하는 파렴치범들에 대해서(실제로 성교섹스시 쾌감오르가즘을

얻고 흥분하고 즐거움을 얻는 것에 필요한 부위가 따로 있는데 이것을 차크라라고도 하고

혹은 쿤달리니라고도 하고 의학적으로는 쾌감선, 쾌감세포, 오르가즘 항진작용이라고 

표현하는바 요런 부위만 쏙 빼내서 제 년 제놈 것으로 만들고 행위동작기계적언행행위만

피해자것으로 만들어놓고 이용해 처 먹는 기술이 이건희,이재용이 놈이며, 아플레이아데스

놈들의 주요핵심사음기술인바 이와같은 기술을 쓰는 파렴치범, 사기꾼, 도적놈들과 창녀

매음부, 간부, 포주놈들에 대해서 아령은 무조건 자지,보지를 참수형에 처하고

쾌락 쾌감을 주는 주요부위기관성선 및 세포, 차크라시스템, 쿤달리니 통제부위들을 

직접 무조건 밀고 들어가서 아령이 점거한후, 그자리에 그대로 영구적으로 영겁에 걸쳐서

영원에 걸쳐서 영속적으로 지속적으로 항구적으로 항속적으로 종신적으로 영원토록

점거하여 그 어떤 섹스의 쾌감이나 쾌락, 오르가즘을 영원히 즐길수 없는 중벌에 처하도록

지시명령처리되다에 대해서 아령이 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영속적

영구적으로 무조건개입하고 무조건 사사건건개입하고 건건이 개입하여 죽여버리도록

아령이 무조건적 무제한적 지속적 관수처리하다) 이거 섹스할 때 시원하게 싸지 못하면

그게 얼마나 사람에게 고통을 주는지 아는가에 대해서 물어본후, 만일 모른다고 말하면

그렇게 말한 놈이나 년에 대해서 무조건 상기에 적시한 중벌에 처하도록 아령이 지속적

항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 무조건개입하고 사사건건개입하고

무제한 개입하여 철저하게 죽여버리도록 관수처리하다. 이는 가장 큰 죄에 해당되는 것으로서

(그렇게 될만한 이유가 없고, 악업이 없는데 그렇게 하면 가장 큰 죄에 해당되는 것으로 처리하다)

처리하여 무조건 중벌에 처하도록 아령이 지속적으로 관수처리하다.

아령은 인디아사음술수인 카마수트라와 동등한 효과를 낼수 있는 서양인에게 잘 맞는

사음기술을 추적하여 찾아보고, 없으면 개발의뢰해서 찾아서 구해서 가져다가

대영제국 배후에 설치해주고, 관수자들과 운영자들을 초빙하여 일정기간(300년 한정)

동안 운용하며 공유하여 사용이용토록 조치토록 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적

영원적 영겁적 영구적 영속적으로 무조건개입하고 무제한개입하고 사사건건꼬치꼬치

개입하며 지속적으로 무제한 관수처리하다.